Compare Chinese and Indian Creation Stories free essay sample

Creation stories or creation legends are accounts that clarify how things started; they are generally passed down a great many ages. In pretty much every culture all through the entire world there are an assortment of renditions of creation stories since the craving to know the root of things around us is a typical human nature. Regardless of the contrasts between the way of life and nations, numerous regular subjects and components can be found in their creation stories. In Both Chinese and Indian creation stories the makers of the earth are both a male individual like figure with a vague foundation. Quite a while back the entire universe was blended into an inestimable egg, inside the egg there was only obscurity. Among these â€Å"Hundun( )† (a term was utilized to depict an amorphous state in Chinese) there was Pangu( ) who was resting for around 18,000 years, at last he woke up and feeling choked, so he chose to standup. We will compose a custom exposition test on Think about Chinese and Indian Creation Stories or then again any comparative subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Be that as it may; he was wrapped firmly by this egg shell and he couldn’t even stretch his arms and legs. He pulled off one of his teeth and transformed it into a gigantic hatchet and broke the egg shell into two sections with an incredible swing, the light piece of the egg continued flying and turned into the sky (Yang) and the overwhelming part continued sinking and turned into the earth (Yin). Pangu was stressed that the sky and earth would return and close once more. He chose to remain between them with his head supporting the sky and his feet on the earth, as time passed by he became taller and the sky and earth additionally got thicker every day. An additional 18,000 years passed. Pangu spent his entire existence and was persuaded that the sky and the earth could remain isolated until the end of time. At last he set down and out of nowhere his left eye turned into the sun, his correct eye turned into the moon; his breath turned into the breeze and voice the thunder; his hair and whiskers turned into the sparkling stars and his arms shaped the ground and the mountains; his blood framed the waterways and muscles the dirt; his skin turned into the trees and blossoms, teeth and bones transformed into gold and minerals†¦ Similar to the Chinese Pangu creation story the Indian Pima’s creation story likewise began with an individual like character whose name was Juh-wert-a Mah-Kai (â€Å"The Doctor of the Earth†). He was gliding in the vacant murkiness and in the long run chose to make the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars and in the end the world that he was happy with. As should be obvious there are basic components or equals between the two creation stories. The two of them concurred that the world was made by an extraordinary being that had the otherworldly powers and the formation of the earth both chanced upon awakening them. The two of them put resources into the basic components that existed on earth from themselves, for example, the sun, the moon and the stars. What's more, it is anything but difficult to see that the sexual orientation of the makers was male which showed that in both culture male was the image of solidarity and force. In old China this thought was significantly reflected since the male legacy was critical as they were the commanded ones in the general public. Female characters likewise assumed a significant job in both Chinese and Indian creation stories. After Pangu isolated the sky and the earth, there was a lady Nuwa( ) who was the main person existing on earth. She was pondering near and attempting to discover somebody to converse with. Be that as it may, the fishes and the fowls couldn't get her. She felt so desolate and as she halted by a lake where she saw her shadow reflected in the water, out of nowhere she understood that she required somebody like her on this planet, so she chose to make progressively individuals such as herself utilizing the yellow dirt and mud close to the lake. She likewise made creatures out of them, for example, chicken, mutts, steers and ponies. This sort of mother figure can likewise be found in the Indian Iroquois creation story where in the upper sky world there was a pregnant lady who brought forth two twin young men. Both Nuwa and the Indian sky lady were female makers that made individuals without another male figure required since the creation stories were told some time before individuals comprehend the conceptive procedure and the people in these accounts were vague animals that normally had surprising force. All the more significantly the two of them underlined the essential obligation of ladies in human culture as engaged with natural multiplication. It isn't difficult to see that there are likewise some normal occasions which occurred in both creation stories, for example, floods. After individuals were made by Nuwa, they began to repeat posterity. Among them there were two characters-fire and water. There was a period that fire and water had a war. The four columns supporting between the sky and the earth crumbled which prompted the ascending of the seas and there was fire and floods all over the place. While Nuwa felt vulnerable that a mammoth turtle went to her and offered its legs, Nuwa had the option to utilize them to supplant the four columns and put them between the sky and the earth again and everything returned to ordinary. Anyway there still were a few harms, the sky was somewhat ilted towards the northwest side which was the motivation behind why the sun and the moon returned to the west toward the day's end. Likewise the earth was somewhat sunk towards the southeast which clarified that all the water and streams were running and assembling toward that path. In the Indian Puma’s flood story two snakes were made to attempt to stop the flood and the snakes were lying between the south and west, and after the flood individuals who were made in the story were settled down in various territories in same locale where the Indians were discovered later on. The flood stories spoke to the entertainment of the first earth that was made and clarified the foundation of the sets of nature and social orders. Turtle is likewise a typical animal in both making stories as we found in the Nuwa’s story and in the Indian Iroquois creation story a huge turtle spared the sky lady and the back piece of the turtle developed into an island of earth. In Chinese culture turtle is regularly rewarded as an enchanted creature, and it is one of the four watchmen of the Chinese compass. It is generally used to speak to life span and continuance in numerous different legends from various societies since it has a long life expectancy and the strength of its back which was utilized as the ramifications for the root of the earth. All in all, the Chinese and Indian creation stories are fundamentally the same as in numerous viewpoints. They clarified how the sky and earth were made from a condition of dimness or â€Å"Hundun†, and how was everything built up and restored on earth, and they additionally attempted to clarify nature marvels with a legitimate sense before any logical clarifications were set up. They filled in as the establishments of the social structure for each culture and mirrored the religions and convictions in various societies. They are additionally utilized as incredible sources today for examining the birthplaces of the way of life. A few people today may take a gander at these accounts and discover them entertaining in light of the fact that it negates with logical realities and proof. Furthermore, a portion of these accounts have been utilized for different purposes, for example, kid's shows, books, and pass on the way of thinking of life in an adequate manner that assumes an imperative job in the public eye.

Accounting Differences Essays - Types Of Insurance, American Brands

Bookkeeping Differences Essays - Types Of Insurance, American Brands Bookkeeping Differences General Comments about the Insurance Industry Insurance agencies produce incomes by selling protection arrangements. These strategies give a known measure of income for an obscure measure of misfortunes balancing that income. This can make the coordinating rule troublesome. A portion of the potential misfortunes can come a very long time after the protection approach was composed and the premiums got. The liabilities for these future misfortunes are assessed by statisticians and are dependent upon a specific measure of translation by the executives. The representing the superior incomes is reflected in composed versus earned premium. Different legal necessities depend on composed premium, which is the measure of premium booked in a given bookkeeping period. Earned premium is commonly utilized for perceiving incomes for money related announcing. As protection approaches are composed on a yearly premise or more, the premiums (incomes) are spread over the term of the strategy time frame regardless of whether the potential obligation surpasses the arrangement time frame. The future risk is assessed and booked against the earned premiums. A few expenses, anyway are not coordinated against this income, principally commissions paid to the protection specialist that sold the approach. This cost is completely perceived at the time the premium is reserved. These impacts can have both positive and negative ramifications. In a period of declining composed premiums, income can really increment and costs should diminish on account of the expenses caused at the time the approach was composed. Not very many insurance agencies in the United States really make a benefit by selling protection. The benefit is commonly produced using the speculation salary earned contributing the premiums they get now, yet don't hope to pay out until sooner or later. This paper inspects the distributed monetary data of Reliance Group Holdings and Travelers Property Casualty Corp for the financial year finishing December 31, 1998 and the second from last quarter reports for the quarter finishing September 30, 1999. The letters to the investors are analyzed just as the budget summaries and ensuing notes. A framework of the bookkeeping standards utilized by the two organizations is given just as some fundamental proportion examination. Dependence Group Holdings, Inc. 1998 Annual Report Letter to Shareholders from Saul Steinberg, Chairmen and CEO and Robert Steinberg, President and Chief Operating Officer. Working pay was up somewhat more than 1997. Total compensation was a record because of continues from offer of benefit, Commonwealth Title. Dependence developed Shareholders Equity by $1.32 billion, most elevated it has ever been throughout the entire existence of the organization. This may not be critical achievement if the organization had continued consistent working and profit development as time goes on. Dependence had 18% development in property and setback premiums, regardless of proceeded with delicate estimating condition and critical calamitous misfortunes just as other climate related misfortunes. Consolidated proportion for 1998 102.1. Consolidated proportion is a proportion of premiums spent to cover misfortunes and costs. For each dollar in premium incomes, the organization burned through $1.02 in costs and misfortunes. Representative and the executives possession adjusts interests of workers to that of investors. The Steinberg's note a fruitful reputation of giving imaginative and particular abilities something to do. In the second from last quarter of 1999 it will be noticed that few of these advancements were not as beneficial as they suspected they were. Note trained guaranteeing approach. Dependence National Dependence Group Holdings biggest benefit place offering particular property and setback protection and hazard the board administrations. They kicked off something new in abroad development and online business openings. These web based business openings are Cybercomp, a program to offer laborers' pay protection over the Internet. Dependence National's global sources produced 12% of the all out premium in 1998, through workplaces in London, China and Argentina. Dependence Insurance This is viewed as a center market organization, composing protection for little and moderate size organizations. The Steinbergs feel this is one of only a handful hardly any organizations offering a full scope of particular items conveyed locally. This implies it is endorsed through neighborhood office workplaces. Dependence National business is to a great extent endorsed halfway, in their administrative center in New York. Dependence Reinsurance Reinsurance offers a strategy for restricting presentation for the generators of protection approaches. A reinsurer will take on a part of a hazard for a bit of the premium. Dependence Reinsurance escaped a few less appealing lines of business and as they didn't act soon enough as critical hold changes

When You Get a Cash Advance, Do They Check Your Credit Score

When You Get a Cash Advance, Do They Check Your Credit Score When You Get a Cash Advance, Do They Check Your Credit Score? When You Get a Cash Advance, Do They Check Your Credit Score?Neither credit card cash advances nor cash advance loans require a credit check. But that doesnt mean they cant affect your credit score.For people with not-so-great or flat out bad credit, applying for a loan or a credit card can be nerve-wracking. After all, applying for new credit is something that gets added to your credit report, and it usually causes your score to lower just a little bit.When your score is already hurting, the last thing you need is for your score to drop any further. Plus, what if you apply for a loan and you get denied for it? Now you’ve got a lower score and nothing to show for it!One option you could explore is a cash advance. After all, if you need fast cash to cover some emergency expenses, a cash advance seems like as good an option as any. But will they check your credit? Will a cash advance affect your score at all?With a credit card cash advance, you use your card to withdraw cash.There ar e two different types of cash advances. One is a credit card cash advance. This is a type of credit card transaction where you use your card to take out paper money and the amount you withdraw is then added to your total balance.The annual percentage rate (APR) for a credit card cash advance is usually much higher than the APR for a regular transaction. Plus, the cash advance does not come with a 30-day interest-free grace period like regular transactions do. This means that the interest for cash advances starts accruing immediately.Plus, most credit card cash advances carry an additional fee just to process the transaction. The fee is often expressed as either a dollar amount or a smaller percentage of the amount withdrawn. For instance: $10 or three percent of the amount withdrawn, whichever is higher. All in all, credit card cash advances are a much more expensive alternative to regular credit card use.Some predatory loans advertise themselves as “cash advance loans.”However, credit card cash advances are far preferable to the other kind of cash advances, which are just sketchy no credit check loansâ€"like payday loans or title loansâ€"that advertise themselves as “cash advance loans.”These loans are a subset of bad credit loans. They’re financial products with short terms and high rates that can be very difficult for people to repay on time. Lenders who offer these products often stand to make more money from the customer rolling their loan over and entering a dangerous cycle of debt.However, even though these two types of cash advances are very different, neither one of them involves a credit check.With either type  of cash advance, they won’t check your credit.When you take out a credit card cash advance, there is no credit check run. In fact, the transaction won’t even show up on your credit report. It will just be seen as an increase in your total credit card balance.As we mentioned earlier, most cash advance loans fall under the heading of “no credit check loans,” which pretty obviously means that they do not involve a credit check. Lenders that offer loans like these usually don’t report payment information to the credit bureaus either, which means that your cash advance loan won’t be showing up on your credit report.With both types of cash advances, this is good news for your credit score. When a lender runs a full check on your credit historyâ€"otherwise known as a “hard” credit checkâ€"it will slightly ding your score. After all, looking for additional personal loans or credit cards can be a sign that you are “desperate” for more credit, which makes you a less appealing prospect to lenders.The effects of the hard check won’t last long, but it’s always best if you can keep your score from lowering, even if it’s just a temporary “ding.”There are two ways that a cash advance could affect your credit score.Now, the only way that a credit card cash advance will affect your credit is if you take out a series of very large cash advances and add so much money to your balance that it starts to affect the “amounts owed” component of your credit score.When it comes to credit cards, your credit score takes into account your “credit utilization ratio,” which measures how much of your total limit you’re spending. If you had a total credit limit of $10,000 and a balance of $3,000, your credit utilization ratio would be 30 percent.And in fact, 30 percent is the ratio that you should aim to stay below. Above that, and you’ll start seeing your score be negatively affected. Luckily, it will probably take quite a few cash advances to push your balance above 30 percent, so this likely isn’t something you’ll have to worry about.A cash advance loan, on the other hand, could affect your score if you fail to pay it back. In a situation like that, the lender will probably sell the debt to a collections agency, who will then report it to the credit bureau. Once that collect ions account is on your report, you will see your score be seriously impacted.A “soft” credit check loan might be a better solution.If you’re in the market for a cash advance loan, you should get out of that market right now. There are too many no credit check loans out there with incredibly high interest ratesâ€"often between 300 and 400 percent, but sometimes even higherâ€"that will trap you in a cycle of debt.Actually, the very fact that a lender does not do anything to check your ability to repay your loan is a big red flag. A lender that doesn’t care about your ability to repay is a lender that doesnt mind if you have trouble repaying your loan. That way, they can charge you additional interest for a due date extension and make way more money.Instead, look for a bad credit lender that runs a soft credit check with your loan application. These checks return a summary of your financial history but, most importantly, do not affect your credit score. You can apply for a sof t credit check loanâ€"like the installment loans offered by OppLoansâ€"without having to worry about a denial lowering your score.Plus, there are some other benefits to installment loans that a cash advance loan simply doesnt have. To learn more, check out these related posts and articles from OppLoans:3 Ways an Installment Loan Can Help Your Credit ScoreWhat’s the Difference Between a Payday Loan and an Installment Loan?5 Alarming Payday Loan StatisticsWhat other questions do you have about cash advances?  We want to hear from you!  You can  email us  or you can find us on  Facebook  and  Twitter.

Multiple Personality Disorder - 1920 Words

Multiple Personality Disorder One particular disorder in the medical field called Multiple Personality Disorder, has caused controversy between those who believe it is real and those who think it is purely part of an individual’s imagination. Multiple Personality Disorder is characterized by the existence of two or more distinct alters or personality states that persistently have control over a person. For those who believe strongly in its existence, it poses very real consequences and hardships. Multiple Personality Disorder has many causes, symptoms, and treatments; unfortunately, those who do not take it seriously use it as a scape for other undiagnosed problems. Many people may wonder what defines Multiple Personality Disorder. This†¦show more content†¦While there is no confirmed cause of MPD, the psychological theory about how the condition develops is as a response to childhood trauma. More than 60 thousand cases of MPD have been diagnosed in America and 97% the victims diagnosed report childhood trauma, a combination of emotional, physical and sexual abuse. The victim then, after learning to disassociate themselves from the event will quickly learn this as a defense mechanism for other problems big or small. The well-defined personalities aid diverse roles in helping the individual cope with life’s dilemmas. Additionally, â€Å"if the multiple personality disorder is caused by childhood trauma it is likely remembered only as a series of perceptual information- fleeting images, olfactory, auditory, or olfactory sensations†. People with this disorder are most likely to forget most of their past and what happened in the trauma. They only remember few details of what happened because they were childs and do not have the capacity to put all together. Other main causes of Multiple Personality Disorder include insomnia, stroke, Alzheimer’s, and narcolepsy. Psychotherapists and researchers conclude that part of what is happening is the isolation of damaging information. Instead of distributing space with the rest of the memories, the disturbing incidences are crammed into their own little area, and the only way they can be accessed is through fragmented and incoherent neural pathways†. As the years haveShow MoreRelatedMultiple Personality Disorder (MPD) Essay example756 Words   |  4 Pages Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD), which is now called Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), is a Dissociative Disorder. This disorder is when a person has two or more distinct personalities that often control the person’s behavior. 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DID is a disorder categorized by identity division rather than a creation of separate personalities. The disorder is not due to the direct psychological effects of a substance or of a general medical condition. DID was called Multiple PersonalityRead MoreSymptoms Of Multiple Personality Disorder1704 Words   |  7 Pagesand not knowing what you had just done; imagine having seven different people living inside of your head all competing to become you. This is a daily struggle for those who are suffering from Multiple Personality Disorder. There are many misconceptions in the United States about Multiple Personality Disorder. First off, it is an actually disease, that cannot be just â€Å"turned off†. It is generally brought on by a traumatic event in that person’s youth. More often than not it is seen in those who were

Get the Scoop on Academic Essay Writing Samples Before Youre Too Late

Get the Scoop on Academic Essay Writing Samples Before You're Too Late Writing a significant academic composition for school is seen as a challenge for many students as a result of its seriousness and technical austerity. If you're anything like the majority of the students we know, you are likely not too excited about it. Generally, students are not so excited about a necessity to handle their homework. Therefore, many students and employees decide to acquire inexpensive essay rather than writing it themselves. You want to present standard ideas in short form. All you have to do is make certain that the meaning is clear. For instance, social networks, like Facebook, allow people to communicate and to link on social levels with people they might have lost touch with. The motive of your essay is essential to be deemed as it can identify whether you're able to be of help to the folks who want a distinct educational reference. Rumors, Deception and Academic Essay Writing Sa mples Your paragraphs do not connect one another's meaning in addition to the full thought of your essay might be incomprehensible. There are lots of ground rules of a suitable outline for this kind of essay. There's no ideal solution on how best to compose an effective essay. If you think that you have produced a strong introduction, you've got to maintain that until the conclusion of your academic essay. Up in Arms About Academic Essay Writing Samples? For example, application letters must be engaging that is telling your prospective employer which you can be an asset to the business. In other words, an academic essay may be an evidence of the depth of your research procedures and the rest of the activities which you've executed so you can support the content of your written output. Therefore, even when you are writing the entire piece all by yourself, look at using special tools to look at each piece for plagiarism. The course materials that you want to speak about with in an academic essay can reflect your degree of understanding about the matter. Academic Essay Writing Samples Fundamentals Explained The very first paragraph mentions the reason behind writing the letter. An academic letter is not only a document that can showcase your mastery when it has to do with a distinct academic subject. A letter of consent will likewise be sent to them together with a sample copy of the questionnaire which will be used, in addition to the protocol of the researcher. It is essential that you compose the letter in a particular method. Students lead busy lives and frequently forget about a coming deadline. Education should be a critical objective. It began to be seen as a right, and even some kind of civic duty. The cost of an essay depends upon the quantity of effort the writer has to exert. In the event the author is an individual, then their very first name is used first. In addition, the writer has a propensity to be repetitive. Even if you b elieve you're a bad writer today, you can learn to take your simple essay and transform it into something far more effective. You don't wish to be caught on plagiarism. An academic essay is a rather important work for each individual. Your academic essay should evoke an emotion that is needed to spark different ideas, opinions and other types of responses. Always keep in mind that it should be playful it must not bore your audience. It is crucial to remember that it doesn't matter what your opinion is! It is recommended to look for the one which has a great reputation and offers high-quality papers at very affordable rates. Also, do not forget that you are able to pay for essay, just order original and higher quality papers from MyEssayWriting on a wide selection of topics. Since academic essays are popular in the business of education and research, you should make sure your writing is both logical, interesting and informative. How to Find Academic Essay Writing Samples Online Formal letters differ from informal letters in quite a few ways. In regard to format, informal letters are thought to be freestyle. Most formal letters are employed in business transactions that's the reason why it is necessary to be mindful of the use of words and the way they're put together. They make use of business English. An essay on climate change isn't overly tricky to write, provided that you take pleasure in the topic. Actually, things can become very interesting once you get started doing the research and unearthing new and intriguing facts and stats. You should have your reasons, and our principal concern is that you wind up getting an excellent grade. There are difference contexts that could be used within the very same subject so that you need to make sure you will be clear in regards to identifying the section of the topic that you're likely to chat about.

Investigatory Project in Biology Free Essays

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF CHILI (CAPSICUM ANNUM) EXTRACT An Investigatory Research Presented to Mrs. Presented by CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Study . Capsicum annuum is a domesticated species of the plant genus Capsicum native to southern North America and northern South America. We will write a custom essay sample on Investigatory Project in Biology or any similar topic only for you Order Now Chili has been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BC. There is archaeological evidence at sites located in southwestern Ecuador that chili peppers were domesticated more than 6000 years ago and is one of the first cultivated crops in the Central and South Americas that is self-pollinating. The plant is a perennial, but usually grown as an annual, with a densely branched stem. The plant reaches 0. 5–1. 5 m (20–60 in). The species is a source of popular sweet peppers and hot chili fruit, and numerous varieties are cultivated around the world. Despite being a single species, Capsicum annuum has many cultivars, with a variety of names. In American English it is commonly known as a chili pepper or bell pepper. Hot peppers are used in medicine as well as food in Africa. It is employed in medicine, in combination with Cinchona in intermittent and lethargic affections, and also in atonic gout, dyspepsia accompanied by flatulence, tympanitis, paralysis etc. Its most valuable application appears however to be in cynanche maligna and scarlatina maligna, used either as a gargle or administered internally. In this research, antimicrobial activity of chili will be studied. Certain bacteria and fungal species will be the focus of the experiment. Bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and fungi like Trichophyton rubrum Statement of the Problem The main problem of this study is to determine the antimicrobial activity of chili (Capsicum annum) extract. This study also intends to answer the following. 1. The effectiveness of the chili extract as an antimicrobial. 2. The response of the bacteria species to the chili extract. 3. The response of the fungal species to the chili extract. Significance of the Study This study would add knowledge in the field of science. This would also be a help in further studies about plants as antimicrobial. Science students and science teachers can use this as a source for future research with regards to this study. The public would directly benefited by this study. Infections of bacteria and fungi to humans such as pimples, athlete’s foot, skin infection and diarrhea will be aided naturally. Since chili is cheap and highly available, people can easily get and make antimicrobial extract from chili. Moreover, this study may as well be use by future researchers as a resource material. Scope and Limitation of the Study This research would make use extract from chili as antimicrobial. Other natural extracts from other plants are excluded. Antimicrobial activity includes bacteria and fungal species. Bacteria species consist of Staphylococcus aureus while fungal species consist of Trichophyton rubrum. Dealing with microorganisms might be exposed for contamination. Aseptic technique should be observed. Over 2 plates of microorganisms will be prepared and a many laboratory works will be done. This might lessen the effectiveness of the research data and result due to human cause. That’s why human patience and strength should be employed to avoid incorrect result. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Capsicum Annuum as Plant Capsicum annuum is a domesticated species of the plant genus Capsicum native to southern North America and northern South America. The three species C. annuum, C. frutescens and C. chinense all evolved from a single common ancestor located somewhere in the northwest Brazil – Columbia area. his species is the most common and extensively cultivated of the five domesticated capiscums. The name annuum means â€Å"annual† (from the Latin annus â€Å"year†, the plant is not an annual and in the absence of winter frosts can survive several seasons and grow into a large perennial shrub. The C. nnuum is especially productive in warm and dry climates. The single flowers are an off-white (sometimes purplish) color whilst the stem is densely branched and up to 60  centimetres (24 in) tall. When ripe, the fruit may be green, yellow or red. In American English the plant is commonly known as a chili pepper or bell pepper. Sweet peppers are very often used as a bulking agent i n cheap ready made meals/take-away food as they are cheap, have a strong flavour, and are colorful. The colorful aspect of peppers increases the visual appeal of the food, making it more appetizing. Capsaicin, a chemical found in chili peppers, creates a burning sensation once ingested which can last for several hours after ingestion. In British English, the sweet varieties are called red or green peppers, and the hot varieties chillies whereas in Australian and Indian English the name capsicum is commonly used for bell peppers exclusively and chilli is often used to encompass the hotter varieties. Uses of Capsicum Annuum The species is a source of popular sweet peppers and hot chilis with numerous varieties cultivated all around the world. Hot peppers are used in medicine in Africa and other countries. It is employed in medicine, in combination with Cinchona in intermittent and lethargic affections, and also in atonic gout, dyspepsia accompanied by flatulence, tympanitis, paralysis etc. Its most valuable application appears however to be in cynanche maligna (acute diptheria) and scarlatina maligna (malignent Scarlet fever, used either as a gargle or administered internally. It is also considered efficacious for a wide variety of symptoms including sore throat nd fever. Microorganisms Microorganisms are very diverse; they include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and protists; microscopic plants (green algae); and animals such as plankton and the planarian. Some microbiologists also include viruses, but others consider these as non-living. Most microorganisms are unicellular (single-celled), but this is not universal, since some multicellular organisms are microscopic, while some unicellular protists and bacteria, like Thiomarg arita namibiensis, are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye. Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere where there is liquid water, including soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks within the Earth’s crust. Microorganisms are critical to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent studies indicate that airborne microbes may play a role in precipitation and weather. Microbes are also exploited by people in biotechnology, both in traditional food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. However, pathogenic microbes are harmful, since they invade and grow within other organisms, causing diseases that kill people, other animals and plants. Antimicrobials An antimicrobial is a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms[1] such as bacteria, fungi, or protozoans. Antimicrobial drugs either kill microbes (microbiocidal) or prevent the growth of microbes (microbiostatic). Disinfectants are antimicrobial substances used on non-living objects or outside the body. The history of antimicrobials begins with the observations of Pasteur and Joubert, who discovered that one type of bacteria could prevent the growth of another. They did not know at that time that the reason one bacterium failed to grow was that the other bacterium was producing an antibiotic. Technically, antibiotics are only those substances that are produced by one microorganism that kill, or prevent the growth, of another microorganism. Of course, in today’s common usage, the term antibiotic is used to refer to almost any drug that attempts to rid your body of a bacterial infection. Antimicrobials include not just antibiotics, but synthetically formed compounds as well. Antimicrobial nanotechnology is a recent addition to the fight against disease causing organisms, replacing heavy metals and toxins and may some day be a viable alternative. Infections that are acquired during a hospital visit are called â€Å"hospital acquired infections† or nosocomial infections. Similarly, when the infectious disease is picked up in the non-hospital setting it is considered â€Å"community acquired†. Natural Antimicrobials Many these plants have been investigated scientifically for antimicrobial activity, and a large number of plant products have been shown to inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. A number of these agents appear to have structures and modes of action that are distinct from those of the antibiotics in current use, suggesting that cross-resistance with agents already in use may be minimal. So, it is worthwhile to study plants and plant products for activity against resistant bacteria. Plants are rich in a wide variety of secondary metabolites, such as tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids, which have been found in vitro to have antimicrobial properties. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Materials Chili Forceps Mortal and Pestle Bacteria culture Blender Fungal culture Cheese clothSmall circular absorbant paper Beaker Research Design In this study, the antimicrobial activity of Capsicum annum will be measured quantitatively against bacterial and fungal species. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) will be qualitatively determined. Plant Collection and Sampling Method Chili (Capsicum annum) plant will be obtained from the local market of Zamboanga City. Mature chili will be use having a usable size of 1/4 inch in diameter. Chili will be purchased using simple random sampling. This will be applied to all chili vendors in the market. They will be washed in sterile water and will be crushed prior to extraction. Extraction Process The 40g crushed chili will be blended until is reaches a smooth texture. The chili soup will be strained by a cheese cloth and extract the juice. The chili extract will be then set aside for the experiment. Bacterial and Fungal Culture The Staphylococcus aureus and Trichophyton rubrum will be used in the experiment. These microorganisms will be obtained from Department of Science and Technology (DOST). Data Gathering Procedure The MIC will be evaluated on the chili extract showing an antimicrobial activity. From the chili extract, a small circular absorbent paper will be soaked and place on the surface of the cultured microorganism. After 2 days. Result will be observed. The zone of inhibition How to cite Investigatory Project in Biology, Papers

Samsung company analysis

Introduction Well established modern business organizations have increasingly been seeking to expand their operations beyond the boundaries of their mother countries. Consequently, at the international level we have a new kind of business known as international business.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Samsung company analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Business organizations particularly from world’s major economies and the emerging Asian economies offering goods and services in different commercial sectors or industries are striving to establish a high profile presence in the international markets in an attempt to improve their profitability and remain competitive in an era of accelerated globalization. Some of them are part and parcel of the business organizations known as multinational corporations (MNCs) or multinational enterprises (MNEs) which have operational branches in many stable nati ons world over. There are various reasons that motivate a company’s desire to expand to the international or foreign markets. Kurtz have identified four main reasons that usually motivates companies or business organizations seek to expand to international markets namely the desire to use current resources and access to new resources, seeking to expand or develop new markets, competitive rivalry and controlling core competences and learning (215). These authors point out that companies search for economies of scale in the use of their existing resources by expanding in to new foreign markets. At times they enter international markets in order to reach certain valuable resources like raw materials, specialized knowledge or cheap labour. As companies become well established in the domestic markets they begin searching for international markets in order to increase their revenue and gain more profits, enhance their competition with major rivals and influence further development of their core competencies Kurtz (215).The aim of this task is to analyze Samsung company in UAE. Doing Business in UAE United Arabs Emirates (UAE) is situated southeast of Arabian Peninsula in southwest Asia on the Persian Gulf. It borders Oman and Saudi Arabia and shares sea borders with Iran, Qatar, Bahrain, Iraq and Kuwait Communicaid (1).Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It’s a federation of Emirates ruled by Emirs and hence termed as the United Arabs Emirates Communicaid (1). According to Mina cited in Greenaway, UAE is a major player in world trade and that it has been the most significant Middle East trade partner for the European Union,US,Canada and Japan (61). UAE’s religious and historical influences combined with a progressive attitude and broad economic opportunities make UAE a most fascinating and unique place to do business Communicaid (1).Co mmunicaid observes that a proper understanding of UAE’s unique culture is vital for those wishing to profitably do business in the Emirates (1). Samsung’s International business strategies Samsung Company originates from South Korea. The Samsung Group of companies is made up of many international associated businesses like Samsung Electronics, Samsung Heavy Industries, Samsung Engineering, Samsung C T, and Samsung Life Insurance among others which are united under the popular Samsung brand. Samsung began to rise as an international corporation in the 1990s.It is during this same period that Samsung changed its strategy from an emulating cost leader to a differentiator. Rowley and Paik notes that Samsung sold off ten subsidiaries downscale and amalgamated operations so as to concentrate on three sectors in order to form the group’s core namely Samsung Electronics, Samsung Heavy Industries, and Samsung Engineering and construction (11). Samsung Electronics is the world’s largest technology company in terms of sales volume. In fact, Samsung brand is particularly popular because of its consumer electronics brand. For example, Giudice, Peruta and Carayannis points out that â€Å"Samsung has been the world’s most popular consumer electronics brand since 2005 and is the best known South Korean brand in the world.† (P.66). Samsung’s electronic products from mobile phones to smart TVs are popular in the UAE markets. Even though there are numerous advantages that accrue from a company’s expansion into international markets, proper international business strategies must be put in place by the management in order to reap the benefits of economies of scale. As Samsung approached foreign markets against a background of the popular Asian money crisis in the 1990s, the firm underwent important strategic changes in order to stand a chance of succeeding in international business as well as domestic business Mathur (269).Ad vertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Samsung company analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The firm shifted from being a company driven by technology that was largely imported into a firm that was driven by the market. In its international business, Samsung has successfully embraced a market driven strategy that is receptive to change Mathur (269). According to Mathur (269), Samsung’s international business strategies have been guided by the firms endeavors to value creation and profitability, the need to become differentiable and one offering distinct value for money to its customers (269). Its international business strategies have also included innovativeness for creating products and finding new foreign marketplaces, a better understanding of its market places and extensive use of RD to develop new products for its customers whose taste and preference is constantly changing. These strategies accord ing to Mathur enabled Samsung to become a recognized international brand by the 2001 (269).Samsung’s major competence has been its leadership in digital technology, digital displays and digital wireless since 1980s Mathur (269). Samsung adapts its products for its different foreign markets. Kurtz argues that the main key to success in international markets lies in a company’s ability to adapt its products to local inclinations and culture (216).For example, in order to satisfy its China’s large and different population Samsung provides different models and price ranges on its electrical devices and electronics Kurtz (216). Samsung marketers according to Kurtz understands that people who live in the hot and humid climate of Guangdong province require bigger refrigerators than those who reside in the northern parts of China (216).Samsung thus adapts its products to suit the preferences and ways of life for specific markets. Even though Samsung has been the most po pular consumer electronics in the world since 2005, it is bound to encounter stiff competition from other key players like Nokia in UAE electronics markets. According to Giudice, Peruta and Carayannis Nokia has been a first mover for long.Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For example, by 2003 Nokia was importing more than five million devices while Samsung was shipping only a few hundreds. In addition, Nokia has been among the forerunners to venture in creation of smart phones and go the directions of foreign markets requiring low cost phones like China and India Giudice, Peruta and Carayannis (66).Samsung has to put on these competitive elements in order to trade profitably in UAE. Difference between vision and mission in formulation of business strategies Many people assume that business vision and mission are one and the same thing and even uses the two terms interchangeably. There is however a clear distinction between these two things in a business context. However, the two are integral parts of a business strategy. According to Stark, a business mission is the unique undertaking or reason for which a company is intended or destined (130). A business mission clearly describes the purpose of the company. He argues that there is a big difference b etween a strategy and a mission. On one hand a mission describes a company’s purpose while on the other hand a strategy describes the way to achieve goals of a company (130). In a nut shell, a business mission identifies a desired destiny while a strategy describes how the company will reach that destiny. For example, Samsung’s mission can be to provide the most superior affordable products for all people in different stations in life while its strategy for realizing that can be through innovation, economical and proper use of resources and skills. Stark observes that a vision in a business context is a mental image of something in future. So that a business vision describes the desired future state of a company thus it is also different from a strategy that describes the way a company like Samsung will achieve its objectives Stark (130). Conclusion To sum up, business strategies are to a large extent universal in nature and even application especially in market econom ies. What make them different are essentially the diverse business environments of various world economies. So that what makes a firm’s international business strategy different from its national or domestic strategy is of course diversity in business environments. Therefore, the most important question that is supposed to bother a firm like Samsung is not whether the market is foreign or domestic but whether there are differences in business environments of its target markets. If there are no differences then its domestic business strategy need not to be changed in order to succeed in a foreign market but if the business environments are different, new international business strategies must be designed or its domestic business strategies must be adapted to suit its target foreign market so as to reap benefits of expanding into international markets. Works Cited Communicaid. Doing Business in the UAE | UAE Social and Business Culture. Communicaid.com.Web.2009. 5th May 2011. G iudice, Manlio, Peruta, David and Carayannis, Elias. Knowledge and the Family Business: The Governance and Management of Family Firms in the New Knowledge Economy. New York, NY: Springer, 2010. Print. Greenaway, Daniel. The World Economy: Global Trade Policy 2008. London: John Wiley and Sons, 2009.Print. Kurtz, David. Contemporary Marketing. New York: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print. Mathur, Charles. Global Business Strategies. New, Delhi: I. K. International Pvt Ltd, 2011.Print. Rowley, Chris and Paik, Y. The changing face of Korean management. London: Taylor Francis, 2009. Print. This assessment on Samsung company analysis was written and submitted by user Yoda to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Anne Frank Goes Into Hiding, 1942

Anne Frank Goes Into Hiding, 1942 Anne Frank Goes Into Hiding (1942): Thirteen-year-old Anne Frank had been writing in her red-and-white-checkered diary for less than a month when her sister, Margot, received a call-up notice around 3 p.m. on July 5, 1942. Although the Frank family had planned to go into hiding on July 16, 1942, they decided to leave immediately so that Margot would not have to be deported to a work camp. Many final arrangements needed to be made and a few extra bundles of supplies and clothes needed to be taken to the Secret Annex ahead of their arrival. They spent the afternoon packing but then had to remain quiet and seem normal around their upstairs renter until he finally went to bed. Around 11 p.m., Miep and Jan Gies arrived to take some of the packed supplies to the Secret Annex. At 5:30 a.m. on July 6, 1942, Anne Frank awoke for the last time in her bed at their apartment. The Frank family dressed in numerous layers so as to take a few extra garments with them without having to cause suspicion on the streets by carrying a suitcase. They left food on the counter, stripped the beds, and left a note giving instructions about who would take care of their cat. Margot was the first to leave the apartment; she left on her bike. The rest of the Frank family left on foot at 7:30 a.m. Anne had been told that there was a hiding place but not its location until the day of the actual move. The Frank family arrived safely at the Secret Annex, located in Otto Franks business at 263 Prinsengracht in Amsterdam. Seven days later (July 13, 1942), the van Pels family (the van Daans in the published diary) arrived at the Secret Annex. On November 16, 1942, Friedrich Fritz Pfeffer (called Albert Dussel in the diary) became the last one to arrive. The eight people hiding in the Secret Annex in Amsterdam never left their hiding place until the fateful day of August 4, 1944 when they were discovered and arrested. See full article: Anne Frank

Roman Plebeian Tribune Definition

Roman Plebeian Tribune Definition The Plebeian Tribune- or tribuni plebis- is also known as the tribune of the people or the tribune of the plebs. The plebeian tribune had no military function  but was strictly a powerful political office. The Tribune had the power to help the people, a function called ius auxilii. The body of the plebeian was sacrosanct. The Latin term for this power is sacrosancta potestas. He also had the power of the veto. The number of plebeian tribunes varied. It is believed there were originally only 2, for a short time, after which there were 5. By 457 B.C., there were 10. The Plebeians Secede The office of plebeian tribune was created in 494 B.C., after the First Secession of the Plebeians. In addition to the two new plebeian tribunes, the plebeians were allowed two plebeian aediles. The election of Plebeian Tribune, from 471, after the passage of the lex Publilia Voleronis, was by a council of plebeians presided over by a plebeian tribune. When the plebeians seceded in 494, the patricians granted them the right of having tribunes with greater power than the patrician tribal heads. These tribunes of the plebs (plebeian tribunes) were powerful figures in Romes Republican government, with the right of veto and more. A patrician, Claudius Pulcher had himself adopted by a plebeian branch of his family so he could run for the office of plebeian tribune under the plebeian name of Clodius. Source A Companion to Latin Studies, by J.E. Sandys

Bacterial biofilms and disease PowerPoint Presentation

Bacterial biofilms and disease - PowerPoint Presentation Example Different bacterial species specifically attach to different surfaces and could aggregate with other species or a combination of species. The organization and structure of biofilms are elaborate. Channels are present for the circulation of nutrients. The different regions show different expression of genes, pointing to functional heterogeneity. Sessile or attached biofilm communities can give rise to nonsessile microbes that can rapidly multiply and disperse. Thus, bacterial biofilms are not easily eradicated by conventional antibiotic therapy, which can lead to chronic bacterial infections. Some biofilms have beneficial effects, i.e. the prevention of colonisation of tissues by exogenous pathogens ("colonisation resistance"). Biofilms prevent pathogen colonisation is due to the production of acids, hydrogen peroxide, biosurfactants. In some cases, the disappearance of protective biofilm indicates the presence exogenous pathogens. Dental plaque, found on teeth surface also protects by the same mechanism. The proliferation of biofilms in certain cases can result in biofilm that can cause medical diseases such as caries, gingivitis, and periodontitis. Aside from oral infections, use of implantable medical devices and impairment in the individual’s host defence mechanism results in biofilm diseases. Acute infections can be treated effectively with antibiotics except those that are caused by antibiotic resistant strains. However, many infectious diseases are caused by bacterial species by bacteria that are common in the environment or are living in the human bodies. However, more than half of the infectious diseases that affect mildly compromised individuals involve bacterial species that are commensal with the human body or are common in our environments. Surfaces of medical devices that are used in diagnosing or treating bacterial infections can harbour the presence of slime-encased bacteria (Table 1 and Figure 2). Chronic bacterial infections that are

Relationship between work patterns and family patterns of Asian Essay

Relationship between work patterns and family patterns of Asian Americans - Essay Example This means that both parents often have to work in order for them to meet the financial obligations of the family. Moreover, with the better levels of education that are available to both men and women, the modern woman is often faced with the dilemma between having a family or building a career. And the case is that often the modern woman does not wish to entirely give up her career to have a family. These pressures on families are experienced across the board irrespective of the ethnic background of the families. Asian Americans, like other minorities in America, are aware that they have to use hard work and employment if they are to achieve socioeconomic mobility in the United States. And coming from a cultural background that encourages hard work (Gladwell 239) it is no surprise that Asian Americans have adapted to and developed innovative strategies to enable them attain the much desired socioeconomic mobility. In America today, Asian Americans have the highest rate of college and university degrees. Many of them have realized impressive occupational successes and are poised to become prominent members of their respective industries. However, it is important to note that the Asian American population within itself is culturally diverse because of their different countries of origin.

False Positives In Presumptive Blood Testing Biology Essay

False Positives In Presumptive Blood Testing Biology Essay Blood is a fluid medium that is found within the cardiovascular system-which comprises of the heart and blood vessels (Jackson and Jackson 2008). It consists of 55% blood plasma and 45% cellular material (Jackson and Jackson 2008). Blood plasma consists of dissolved materials such as antibodies, hormones, waste products and nutrients, whereas the cellular material consists of erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets) (Jackson and Jackson 2008). Blood is transported through the body by the pumping action of the heart. It has numerous functions including (Jackson and Jackson 2008): Acting as an internal transport system-including the removal of waste products for excretion and moving nutrients for metabolism. Maintaining body temperature. Defending against infection. Protecting the body from effects of injury. Blood is one of main sources of DNA found at crime scenes, and is crucially important in establishing a link between a suspect and a victim of a crime (Jackson and Jackson, 2008). To detect the presence of blood at a crime scene, a presumptive test is used. These can, however, only detect whether a substance is blood and cannot distinguish between human and animal blood-a serological test is needed to do this. The Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are the most common type of blood cell and contain haemoglobin (Jackson and Jackson 2008). They contain haemoglobin- a protein containing iron. Haemoglobin is responsible for the carriage of oxygen, and it is this property that presumptive blood tests are based on. Most of the presumptive tests rely on the ability of haemoglobin to catalyse the oxidation of a reagent, normally hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 (aq)) (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The result of oxidation normally produces a colour change in the presumptive test. Tiny amounts of blood present as a scene can be detecting using a colour change test. Some old and dried stains look similar in appearance to blood which can lead to a scenes of crime officer conducting a presumptive test. Other substances that could have contaminated suspected blood or other substances on their own at a scene could lead to a presumptive blood test incorrectly showing a positive result for blood. This is known as a false positive. Once a stain has been determined as blood, then two processes must be completed. The first is to interpret any bloodstain patterns, so that a reconstruction of events can be established (Langford et al 2005). Secondly, bloodstains must then be recovered for further analysis (Langford et al 2005). Recovery of bloodstains varies according to whether the stain is wet or dry. Once recovered, the blood can then be sent to a Forensic Science Service laboratory, where it will be initially tested to ascertain whether it is human or animal blood. To do this a serological test will be conducted, which involves identifying the presence of proteins specific to humans and analysing for DNA sequences specific to humans (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The blood will then be used for DNA profiling, which will hopefully establish whether the blood belongs to the suspect or the victim. I.II Aims and Objectives The aim of my project is to create a definitive list of false positives for four different presumptive blood tests. Within this aim I have six objectives to complete: To compare the false positives of four different presumptive tests. To test substances that are known false positives- as reported by other authors. To test unknown substances allied to those already known. To record the time taken for a substance to react with a presumptive test. To photograph the results of from each substance. To create a definitive list of false positives for each presumptive test. I am going to compare four different presumptive tests, as some tests are more practical to use in some situations than others. Consequently, analysing more than one test will allow a wider range of results. I shall also be testing known false positives as reported by other authors, as it is important to show how the presumptive tests react. Unknown substances allied to those that are known will then be tested to see whether similar substances react alike. This will then allow me to establish whether an unknown substance has reacted or not, as I can compare the reaction times and colour changes from both the known and unknown substances. It is important to record the time taken for a substance to react with a presumptive test, as blood should show a result straight away. An unobvious result that takes time to develop could indicate that the substance being tested is a false positive. Photographing results will allow me to document the differences in the colour change in each reaction with each substance. I feel that it is important to create a definitive list of false positives as it can reduce the risk of using valuable resources at a crime scene. For example, if a scenes of crime officer is informed that a possible blood stain has been contaminated with horseradish (a known false positive), then they can use a presumptive test for blood that is not known to produce a false positive with horseradish. If the result is positive for blood, then serological tests for blood can be carried out. Overall, I hope that this project will aid the work of a scenes of crime officer to choose the correct presumptive test to use in different situations-minimising time spent and resources used. Chapter II. Literature Review II.I Background Information The scientific analysis of blood was initially mentioned in 13th century Chinese texts, but it was Karl Landsteiner who discovered the modern science of blood typing, which categorises different types of blood into the ABO blood typing system (White 2010). In 1901 it was reported that blood could be determined in two week old serum stains on linen, and by 1902 the four blood types A, B, O and AB had been discovered (White 2010). This system is based on types of antigen on the red blood cells membrane. An antigen is a protein molecule capable of binding on to an antibody (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). The ABO system uses two antigens which are known as A and B; and the four blood groups are determined according to this system (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). People that have the blood group A have the A antigen, those that are group B have the B antigen; those in the AB category have both antigens and those who belong to the O group have neither antigen (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). A persons blood contai ns the opposite group of corresponding antibodies, so people with blood group A have b antibodies, people with blood group B have a antibodies, those with blood group AB have neither a or b antibodies and those with blood group O have both a and b antibodies (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). If the wrong antibodies are introduced into the wrong blood group then death can be a result due to the red cells clumping together. The first suspect to have been convicted largely on the basis of DNA analysis of blood samples was found guilty at Leicester Crown Court on 22nd January 1988 (White 2010). This case marks an important milestone, and DNA technology has become commonplace in forensic laboratories and is now instrumental in establishing both guilt and innocence in court cases (White 2010). II.II Physical Properties of Blood Blood constitutes about 7.7% of the body weight of a person (White 2010). This equates to 5-6 litres in males and 4-5 litres in females (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). Viscosity is resistance to flow, which in fluids is compared to water which has a viscosity of 1. (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Blood viscosity usually ranges between 4.4 and 4.7 (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). Blood also has a higher specific gravity (density) than water, which is the weight of a substance relative to the weight of an equal volume of water (James and Nordby 2005). Blood is a fluid that circulates throughout the body by way of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries-known as the circulatory system (James and Nordby 2005). A primary function of blood is to transport oxygen, electrolytes, nourishment, hormones, vitamins and antibodies to tissues and to transport waste products from tissues to the excretory organs (James and Nordby 2005). Tortora and Anagnostakos (1987) (in Bevel and Gardner 2002) say that when 4-6 litres of blood is present in the circulatory system, it is distributed as follows: Figure 1- Blood Distribution in the Circulatory System (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987) As a medium, blood is composed of 55% plasma and 45% cells (White 2010). A single drop or large volume of blood is held together by strong cohesive molecular forces that produce a surface tension (James and Nordby 2005). Surface tension is defined as the force that pulls the surface molecules of a liquid toward its interior, decreasing the surface area and causing the liquid to resist penetration (James and Nordby 2005). Bevel and Gardner (2002) state that plasma is the pale yellow fluid component of blood, which is broken down by volume into 91% water, 8% protein, 1% organic acids and 1% salts. Fibrinogen is one of the proteins, and this plays an important role in the clotting of blood (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Blood serum is blood plasma minus its protein content (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The cellular component of blood consists of erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets) (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Red blood cells are heavier than plasma, which can be seen in bodies as lividity-which is where red cells settle to the lowest extremity of a body after death (Chmiel and Walitza 1980). http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301images/Red_White_Blood_cells.jpg Figure 2- A red blood cell, platelet and white blood cell (University of Eastern Kentucky 2010). There are roughly 4.8 to 5.4 million red blood cells per cubic millimetre of blood (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). They are bioconcaved discs in shape. The main role of the red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs via the arterial system and return carbon dioxide to the lungs for expiration via the venous system (James and Nordby 2005). Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which is a red pigment that gives blood its colour (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Haemoglobin is composed of globin, which is made up of four folded polypeptide chains, and four haem groups that join with iron (University of Eastern Kentucky 2010). http://www.ul.ie/~childsp/CinA/Issue64/Images/TOC36_2.gif Figure 3- Haemoglobin, containing four haem groups (University of Limerick, 2010). As the oxygen content increases in the blood, the bright red pigment of the haemoglobin also increases (Bevel and Gardner 2002). A red blood cell does not contain a nucleus. Red blood cells are expressed as a percentage of the packed (red) cell volume (PCV), also known as the haematocrit (Wonder 2001). Nelson and Rodak (1983) state that the haematocrit in humans is variable between individuals. Haematocrit Possible people with range of haematocrit 15-29% Chronic alcoholics or drug abusers, steroid abusers, women after traumatic child birth or illegal abortion, malnourished homeless, elderly. 30-48% Normal range for nontraumatic venipuncture (blood drawn in a clinic or hospital) samples. 49-75% Dehydrated individuals, people in shock, those living at high altitude, impending and active heart attack victims, newborn babies, people suffering from hypothermia, and people after extreme exercise. Table 1- Table to show the range of haematocrit ratios (Wonder 2001). White blood cells act to fight infections, destroy old cellular material and to destroy other invading microbes (Bevel and Gardner 2002). White blood cells can be further subdivided into phagocytes which are responsible for the capture and ingestion and foreign substances, and lymphocytes- which are responsible for the production of antibodies (Jackson and Jackson 2008). They make up less than 1% of the cellular component of blood, which equates to 5000 to 9000 white blood cells per cubic millimetre (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). The nuclei of white blood cells are the source of DNA in the blood (James and Nordby 2005). The other part of the cellular component of blood is the platelets. Like red blood cells, platelets also lack a nucleus (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Bevel and Gardner (2002) say that there are generally about 250,000 to 400,000 platelets per cubic millimetre of blood. Platelets are major components of the clotting mechanism of blood, and this is their primary function (James and Nordby 2005). Platelets have irregular shapes and are normally quite small, however when they encounter a damaged blood vessel they increase their size and their shapes changes (Bevel and Gardner 2002). They also become sticky and adhere to surrounding fibres in the vessel wall, which results in the accumulation of platelets called the platelet plug (Bevel and Gardner 2002). II.III Blood at a Crime Scene Blood is normally found at a crime scene due to a person sustaining an injury either by accident or on purpose. When a breach in the circulatory system occurs- due to an injury- the body reacts in different ways to control the loss of blood (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Initially the vascular spasm occurs, which is which the smooth vessels in the blood vessel wall contract to decrease the size of the vessel, which reduces the flow of blood through it (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Tortora and Anagnostakos (1987) say that this reduces blood loss for up to 30 minutes following injury, which gives time for the other blood loss mechanisms to engage. The platelet plug then follows which reduces, if not stops, the blood loss (Bevel and Gardner 2002). The final step is coagulation, or clotting. This is what is normally seen at crime scenes, where the clotted mass of fibrin fibres and blood cells is surrounded by blood serum (Bevel and Gardner 2002). There are three types of bleeding that can occur from damage to blood vessels (BUPA 2009): Arterial Bleeding Venous Bleeding Capillary Bleeding. Arterial bleeding usually is spurting bright red blood, due to the blood having come from the heart and lungs-so it is oxygen rich (Walter et al 2004). The pumping action of the heart adds rhythmic surges to move blood vessels away from the heart (Wonder 2001). It is the most serious type of bleeding, and the most difficult to control due to the blood in the arteries being under pressure from the heart (Walter et al 2004). Arterial wounds results in volume stains (Wonder 2001). Loss from the carotid artery or the aorta can rapidly lead to death (Wonder 2001). Examples of arterial injuries, and how they may occur are listed in Table 2. Artery Location Probable Occurrence Facial Mouth/lips Beating Temporal Head/temples Gunshot, Crushing Carotid Neck, front throat Stab wound, Gunshot, Decapitation Subclavian Under collar bone Gunshot, Crushing Aorta Chest Gunshot, Stab wound Brachial Arm/elbow Bone break Radial Wrist Slit wrists, Bone Break, Stab wound Femoral Groin Gunshot, Stab wound Tibial Ankle Bone Break, Crushing Deltoid Upper arm muscle Stab wound Table 2- Areas and actions that may involve arterial damage (Wonder 2001) External venous bleeding is normally as a result of wounding, as veins are closer to the skin than arteries (Walter et al 2004). It results in the steady flow of dark red (almost brown) blood, and is darker than arterial blood as it has released oxygen to the tissues in the body and is flowing back to the heart and lungs for more oxygen (Walter et al 2004). Capillary wounding is common in minor wounds as capillaries are very small vessels that are under very little pressure with a low volume of blood (Walter et al 2004). Capillary bleeding results in the oozing of either bright or dark red blood, which will normally stop on its own (Walter et al 2004). As well as the three main types of bleeding, there is a further category which is traumatic bleeding. There are different types of wounds which can cause traumatic bleeding, and these can be categorised as follows: Abrasion- also known as a graze, where an object brushes on the skin but does not break it. Hematoma- where blood vessels are damaged, causing blood to collect under the skin. Laceration- where a blunt impact to soft tissue causes a deep wound. Incision- where a precise cut is made into the skin. Puncture Wound- where an object penetrates the skin and deeper layers. Contusion- also known as a bruise, where a blunt trauma causes damage under the skin, but does not break it. Crushing injuries- where a great amount of force is applied over a period of time, causing initially internal bleeding. Ballistic trauma- where a projectile weapon has entered and exited the area of the body, causing a wound between the two. Scenes of Crime officers attend many types of crime scene where blood is present. These include: Burglary- When an offender breaks a glass window or door to gain entry to a premises, they risk cutting their hands/arms. This leads to blood being left on fragments of glass in the window and on the floor. Assault/Wounding- Open wounds are normally the result of an attack on a victim. Blood can be left at an assault scene on the weapon that was used in the assault, on the ground, on the offender and on the victim. If the victim is bleeding heavily then blood will be left whenever the victim comes into contact with another surface. Manslaughter/Attempted Murder/Murder- Blood left at these scenes is not only important for swabbing purposes, but the pattern in which the blood is left can determine the order of events at a major scene. Road Traffic Crash- Blood at this scene can be found in the victims car and, if involved, the offenders car. This is important as it can place people in their respective cars- allowing investigators to work out the positions of people at the time of the incident. The collection, packaging and preservation of blood evidence at a crime scene should not take place until the scenes of crime officer has documented the bloodstain patterns (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Whenever biological fluids are encountered at a crime scene, protective clothing, gloves and masks should be worn due to the biohazard nature of blood (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). To recover dry blood, an area near the blood that is unstained should be swabbed using a sterile swab, as a control sample (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Then, the stain should be swabbed using a sterile swab that has been moistened using sterile water (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The remains of the stain should then be dry swabbed using a sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The swabs should be returned to their tubes immediately and stored frozen as soon as possible (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). A batch control of both the water and swabs should always be made, and should be exhibited separately to the swabbed stain and background control (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Items that have areas of dried blood on them should be packaged in paper bags which are sealed securely and clearly marked as biohazard. Blood and bloodstained evidence should never be packaged in airtight containers (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). To recover wet blood, a control swab of the surrounding area of the stain should be taken using a sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The wet stain should then be swabbed using a dry, sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The swabs should be returned to their tubes immediately, and should be stored frozen as soon as possible (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Again, a batch control of the swab should be exhibited separately (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). If a removable item has an area of wet blood on it, then the entire object should be exhibited and left to dry in a drying room at the police station. Often at crime scenes, stains that are composed of unknown substances can easily be confused with blood. Identifying whether a substance is blood allows further analysis to confirm species, and the individual (Spalding 2006). II.IV Presumptive Tests for Blood James and Nordby (2005) say that a presumptive test is one which allows the scenes of crime officer to make a qualified conclusion that blood is present in the tested sample, when positive. They also say that when a test is negative, stains that need no further consideration are eliminated. Presumptive tests may be recognised as those that produce a visible colour reaction or those that result in the release of light (James and Nordby 2005). Both of these rely on the catalytic properties of blood to drive the reaction (James and Nordby 2005). Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) write this as a chemical reaction: AH2 + H2O2 Æ’Â   A + 2H2O Oxidisable chemical Hydrogen peroxide Haeme Oxidised (colourless) (peroxidise) James and Nordby (2005) state that catalytic tests involve the chemical oxidation of a chromogenic substance by an oxidising agent catalyzed by the presence of blood. They also say that the catalyst of the reaction is the peroxidise-like activity of the haeme group of haemoglobin. Cox (2004) describes the attributes that a good presumptive test for blood should be sensitive, specific, quick, simple and safe. In order for presumptive tests for blood to function properly, they must detect a component of blood (Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id 2007). Most presumptive tests therefore act on the peroxidise activity of haemoglobin. This component is not found in the everyday environment, but other substances found in items such as fruit and vegetables perform a similar function (Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id 2007). A very popular presumptive method is the phenolphthalein test, which is also known as the Kastle- Meyer test (Virkler and Lednev 2009). Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) say that the Kastle-Meyer test was introduced in 1901 by Kastle. Phenolphthalein will cause an alkaline solution to turn pink after it has been oxidised by peroxide when blood is present (Spalding 2006). The reagent consists of reduced phenolphthalein in alkaline solution, which is oxidised by peroxide in the presence of haemoglobin (James and Nordby 2005). The test result is normally immediate, and a positive result a minute or more after the test is performed is usually not considered as reliable (James and Nordby 2005). It has a sensitivity of 1:100,000 (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). James and Nordby (2005) say that Adler and Adler in 1904 investigated the reduced or colourless form (leuco) of the dye malachite green, which is also referred to as McPhails reagent. This test involves the Leuco base of malachite green (Lillie 1969). Leucomalachite Green oxidation is catalyzed by haeme to produce a green colour (James and Nordby 2005). The reaction is usually carried out in an acid medium with hydrogen peroxide as the oxidiser (James and Nordby 2005). It has a sensitivity of 1: 20,000 (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Bluestar is a luminol preparation developed by Professor Loic Blum in France that is extremely sensitive and stable and produces a very bright, long lasting chemiluminescence (James and Nordby 2005). The extreme sensitivity of Bluestar Forensic allows detections of bloodstains down to 1:10,000 dilutions (Bluestar Forensic 2004). It does not require total darkness to be visible, and works well on either fresh blood or old bloodstains (Bluestar Forensic 2004). Bluestar works by mixing the Bluestar Forensic solution with Bluestar Forensic tablets, which is then left to dissolve. This is sprayed onto the area of suspected blood. A positive result will cause a bluish luminescence (Bluestar Forensic 2004). The Hemastix test, created by Miles Laboratories in 1992, is particularly useful when solutions can be hazardous, or inconvenient (James and Nordby 2005). The test consists of a plastic strip with a reagent treated filter tab at one end (James and Nordby 2005). The tab contains TMB, diisopropylbenzene, dihydroperoxide, buffering materials and non reactants (James and Nordby 2005). A bloodstain is tested by moistening a swab with distilled water, sampling the stain, and touching the swab onto the reagent tab on the strip (James and Nordby 2005). The tab is normally yellow, and turns form orange to green or blue when positive. Quality control testing is necessary and should be completed with known blood samples on every new batch of test reagents to verify that the reagents are working as expected (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). II.V False Positives Sutton (1999) points out that a false positive is an apparent positive test result obtained with a substance other than blood. James and Nordby (2005) say that misleading results can be attributed to Chemical oxidants (often producing a reaction before the application of peroxide) Plant materials (vegetable peroxidises are thermolabile) Materials of animal origin (that contain traces of blood). Substances that produce false positives generally take detectably longer to react and, therefore, may be eliminated through observational interpretation (Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id 2007). False positives were initially noted only with copper salts (Glaister 1926). Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id (2007) state that saliva, semen, potato, tomato, tomato sauce, tomato sauce with meat, red onion, red kidney bean, horseradish, 0.1 ascorbic acid, 5% bleach, 10% cupric sulphate, 10% ferric sulphate and 10% nickel chloride are all known false positives. Bluestar False Positives (2008) say that Bluestar has false positives that include oil based paint, alkyd varnish, turnip, banana, leek, green bean, carrot, ginger, manganese sulphate, copper sulphate, iron sulphate and potassium permanganate. Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) write that many household cleaning products contain oxidising agents that can produce false positives. Many fruit and vegetables produce false positives including apples, horseradish and broccoli (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Bleach is a false positive that provides an (immediate and intense reaction) according to Gardner (2005). Hunt et al (1960) say that faeces often gave a false positive depending on the food that had been eaten previously. Ponce and Pascual (1999) state that lemon juice added to a bloodstain can cause a positive result due to its acidity. A false negative is when there is some interference with the oxidation-reduction reaction, normally in the presence of a strong reducing agent, which results in a delay of the oxidation reaction; thus resulting in a coloured formation (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). False negatives are less common but problematic as an actual blood sample may be overlooked or left at the scene (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Many of the false positive reactions can be identified during the presumptive testing procedure if any changes observed and the exact point in the reaction of these changes is recorded and compared to that of blood (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Chapter III. Experimental Methodology I will be investigating known substances previously reported by other authors that show a false positive and then analysing other substances similar to those already known to see if these also produce a false positive. III.I Project Design Each of the substances will need to be repeated to ensure a wide enough range of consistent results. Therefore, a grid will be drawn on a piece of Perspex measuring 1.5m2, and a piece of filter paper placed in each of the grid spaces, to allow the even distribution of substances and to allow the easy identification of false positives. Blood Known False Positives Unknowns 1 2 3 1 2 A New technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of blood B New technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of blood C New technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of blood Figure 4- A diagram to illustrate an example of the project layout. For each of the presumptive reagents tested, the filter paper in each grid space will be exposed to a substance to be tested. This will be allowed to dry for a minimum of 1 hour. Each substance will then be tested with a reagent. Each substance will be repeated three times to give a fair indication of performance. The time taken for a substance to register a positive result will be recorded. If a colour change occurs then the test will be classed as positive. If no colour change is noted within 5 minutes of the reagent being added, then the test will be classed as negative. III.II Sample Preparation The substances that I have chosen to analyse are known false positives as reported by other authors and then substances allied to known false positives. Known false positives to be tested: Horseradish. Tomato Sauce. Red Onion. Turnip. Lemon Juice. Bleach Solution (5%). Unknown substances to be tested: Brown Sauce. BBQ Sauce. Radish. Dark Chocolate. Orange Juice. Bleach Solution (less than 5%). III.III Choice of Presumptive Tests I have chosen to use the following presumptive reagents to test substances for false positives: Kastle-Meyer. Hemastix. McPhails. Bluestar. III.IV Control Tests I will test all of the presumptive tests on blank filter paper before proceeding to test with substances. This ensures that there is no reaction from the filter paper to the presumptive tests. I shall also test all of the presumptive tests with horse blood before proceeding to test with substances. This shows that the tests do recognise a sample of blood. I have chosen to use 2.5g of each substance as I feel this is an amount that is representative of a stain at a scene. Blood is reported to have been diluted to 1:10000 in previous tests, and as this dilution has proved the most successful, I have chosen to use this dilution. REARRANGE + FINISH

Critical Issues of Soil Erosion Problems

Soil quality is one of the most basic and perhaps least understood indicators of land health. Soil supports plant growth and represents the living reservoir that buffers the flows of water, nutrients, and energy through an ecosystem. The ongoing degradation of the earth†s soils by human activity, particularly agriculture, threatens human potential to feed a growing population. The annual global erosion amounts to about 36 billion tons, of which 10 billion are due to natural causes and 26 billion are the result of human activity (Crosson et al. 995). The soil or runoff that has been eroded ends up in groundwater, lakes, streams, and rivers. The deposits of excess soil and the contaminates in it, cause further ecological complications. Bodies of water need to be dredged and monitored for contamination. Water levels are lowered with the increasing soil eroded into them, making our world†s water supply a concern directly related to the erosion of soil. The process of soil renewing itself is largely unknown. However, there is consensus on the need for conservation. Evaluating the scope of the problem or predicting the effects that various solutions might have on agriculture and the environment is very difficult. Degradation is gauged for all soil in terms of compaction, erosion, nutrient loss and loss of organic matter. Soil quality refers to the capacity of a soil to perform these beneficial functions. Its texture, structure, water-holding capacity, porosity, organic matter content, and depth, among other properties determine a soil†s quality. Because soils naturally vary in their capacity to perform these functions, we must tie our understanding of soil quality to landscapes and land use. We must understand soil quality for two important reasons: First, we must match our use and management of land to soil capability. Second, we must establish understanding about soil quality so we can recognize ongoing trends. If soil quality is stable or improving, we have a good indicator that the ecosystem is sustainable. If soil quality is deteriorating, the larger ecosystem will almost certainly decline with it (Wilken 1995, Mirzamoatafa et al. 1998). Many conservation efforts are being taken to control soil erosion. In order to do this a universal language is need to measure soil erosion, texture, and the potential for erosion. Soil loss tolerance (â€Å"T†) is the amount of a given soil that can be displaced by water or wind erosion each year and be replenished through natural soil regeneration processes. This is a basis for evaluating the impacts of soil erosion and develops objectives for conservation treatment. Erosion at rates greater than T is a special concern because it threatens agricultural sustainability. Enrichment Ratios (ER) often used as a measure of the nutrients available for soil. It is a ratio of the intrinsic potential for soil displacement from erosion to the â€Å"T† limit (Baffaut et al 1998). From 1991 to 1992 in Central Kenya†s highlands, these formulas were used to monitor runoff, soil loss, and enrichments of eroded soil material. Annual rainfall was 948 and 1125 mm for 1991 and 1992. Soil loss ranged from 0. 8 to 247. 3 tons, and runoff ranged from 1 to 89 mm. The enrichment ratios (ER) were [greater than or equal to] 1 and sediments were mostly enriched with P and Na. The P and Na concentrations were 4 to 10 and 2 to 3 times the source material. Sediment from the plots was 247 to 936% richer in P than the soil from which it originated. Too much P can have negative effects on the plant and wildlife surrounding it. Changes in soil pH, percentage organic C, and percentage total N following erosion were significantly correlated with cumulative soil loss (r values of 0. 77, 0. 59, and 0. 71, n = 20). The data indicated that the unbalancing of nutrients in the soil is due to erosion, and one of the major causes of soil fertility depletion of Kenyan soils (Gachene et. al. 1997). The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) estimates average annual soil loss from sheet and till erosion. The equation is: A=RKLSCP, where A is the computed soil loss per unit area, R is a rainfall factor, K is a soil erodibility factor, L is a slope length factor, S is a slope degree factor, C is a crop practice factor, and P is a conservation practice factor (Baffaut et al 1998). Data from erosion plots in Tarija suggest only moderate rates of erosion (200tons-per. yr. ). Data at 6-min intervals for 41 sites in the tropics of Australia were used to compute the rainfall and runoff factor (R-factor) for the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), and a daily rainfall erosivity model was validated for these tropical sites. Mean annual rainfall varies from about 300 mm at Jervois to about 4000 at Tully. For these tropical sites, both rainfall and rainfall erosivity are highly seasonal. The daily erosivity model performed better for the tropical sites with a marked wet season in summer in comparison to model performance in temperate regions of Australia where peak rainfall and peak rainfall erosivity may occur in different seasons (Yu 1998). The Wind factor must be considered when evaluating soil erosion. Plant nutrients are transported in windblown sediment. The Wind Erosion Equation (WEQ) is designed to predict long-term average annual soil losses from a field having specific characteristics. The equation is E=f (IKCLV), where E is the estimated average annual soil loss, I is the soil erodibility, K is the ridge roughness factor, C is the climatic factor, L is the equivalent unsheltered distance across the field along the prevailing wind erosion direction, and V is the equivalent vegetative cover (Baffaut et al. 1998). As validation for the Wind Erosion equation (WEQ) two field sites were established in southern Alberta (one in 1990, one in 1993). At Site 1, total N in windblown sediment trapped at 25-cm height showed an average (13 events) enrichment ratio of 1. 11, while organic C in windblown sediment showed an average enrichment ratio of only 1. 02 compared with soil from the erodible surface. At Site 2, the average (4 events) total N enrichment ratio was 1. 08 and the average organic C (carbon) enrichment ratio was 1. 05. The results provide further evidence that every effort should be to prevent erosion of the thin layer of surface soil that ensures the future sustainability of agriculture (Baffaut et. al. 1998). These examples of using universal formulas to measure soil erosion allow scientists to evaluate an area and compare efforts that are working else where and apply them to areas were soil erosion is in need of being lessened. During last 40 years, nearly one-third of the world land has been lost by erosion. This loss continues at a rate of more than 10 million hectares per year. The world population†s food demand is increasing at a time when per capita food productivity is beginning to decline (Pimentel et al. 1995). If conditions leading to famine are to be avoided, land that produces food must be preserved. The ecological food web links plants, animals, and people must live in harmony with the planet†s water, soil, and atmosphere. Once those connections are severed the hunger web begins. To avoid these devastating effects, steps must be taking in all aspects of ecology. The greatest impact of soil erosion is farming practices that are ignorant to overall effects on the food web. The key to farming is to grow enough food for all of your people. When towns were made up of small farms this goal was more easily obtainable. When people stop farming, food production then became an industry where money takes precedent over soil. Because of demand and economic reason farmers in the United States are destroying delicate balances in nature and drastically altering the landscape so that soil is at risk of erosion, and is eroded faster than it can be formed. (Pimentel, Resosudarmo1995) Agricultural practices of cropping and tillage are two important factors that influence runoff and soil losses. Much research had been done to show the effects of different tilling and crop rotations on soil erosion. Doyle†s (1996) research concluded that between 1982 and 1992 the US improved or at least had no increase in average erosion rates in most areas with extensive cropland. Some of the improvement found was the result of crops being rotated and better tiling methods. Brown (et al 1998) investigated the effects of combining whey and straw in croplands. This research found that straw or whey alone reduces soil loss by 60-85 percent. When combined they reduce soil loss by 96- 98 percent. Ghidey and Alberts (1998) found through a study in Kansas that the annual runoff and soil losses from soybean cropping were slightly higher than those for corn. These studies and others like them have provided the knowledge of how to prevent further soil erosion. The Conservation Reserve Program pays farmers to remove or add environmentally sensitive crops to their croplands (Ghidey, Alberts 1998). There are many casualties of conventional chemical farming: erosion, a decline in soil quality, water purity, weakened crop resistance to pests and diseases, and the safety of farm workers. According to US News & World Report, 9/14/92, an excess of $4 billion a year is spent on pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides Chemical farmers are still losing about a third of their crops each year to insects, diseases, and weeds. Because of tilling practices, these chemicals used in farming not only effect the food produced and ground water but also the places where the runoff is deposited. Herbicide loss by runoff is a world wide problem. These contaminated runoffs kill a variety of wildlife, aquatic life forms, and many species of vegetation. An economical and environmental alternative to conventional farming is organic crop production. Organic farming is a soil management system that maintains and replenishes soil fertility. Organic foods are produced without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers. The strategy behind organic crop production is to produce food crops which are â€Å"processed, packaged, transported, and stored so as to retain maximum nutritional value without the use of artificial preservatives, coloring, or other additives. Allowable management techniques include: the use of cover crops, manures, and composts for soil fertility management, the use of mulches, hand or mechanical cultivation, and crop rotation for weed management, and production scheduling and crop selection for disease and insect management. Organic farming is not as easy or as productive as conventional farming, especially on infertile sandy soils. To be successful, an organic farmer requires a sound knowledge of soil type, crop management and the incidence of pests and diseases in different seasons (Arden-Clarke et al 1987). Organic production preferably should be combined with systems not usually used in agriculture such as cover crops and livestock farming. This requires a larger area than the normal agricultural holding, which must be chosen carefully. The Department of Agriculture (Elliott et al. 1987) certifies organic production systems. Certification involves the development of an organic plan for the operation, the plan to be evaluated and approved by an accredited agent, and the agreement of the farmer to abide by the list of approved substances. The organic agent also reviews soil and water tests, crop histories, production, and rotation plans. The area in which organic crops are to be grown must be chemical free for 3 years. They verify compliance with standards through annual and spot inspections, and record keeping requirements (Elliott et al. 1987). Consumers are demanding organically grown fruit and vegetables, and are willing to pay a higher price. The sales of organic products have increased from $178 million to over $4 billion in 1998, and is growing in excess of 20% per year. These operations will focus on the production of lettuce, tomatoes, and cucumbers (Us News &World 1998). There is a demand for certified organic vegetables, especially with the new health awareness of the public. As with any type of farming, there is the risk of unfavorable weather and invasive pests, which could, reduced a season†s crop. Economics may be a large controlling factor for soil erosion. . When demand for grain increases, and supply decreases, price for food will increase. Americans can afford to pay a few cents extra for bread, horse food, and rice but poorer countries will suffer when food becomes too expensive. Although the United States has been referred to as the â€Å"bread basket† of the world because of our impressive food production, our history constituted prolific amounts of soil erosion. During the 1930†³s dust clouds forced people from their homes, killed humans and animals alike, and caused snow in Vermont to be black. Agricultural economists are aware that severely eroded soils are less productive–if too much soil is lost, the next planting and harvest are delayed. Soils are less productive if crop planting has to be delayed. Instead of harvesting five times in one season, farmers might only reap three. Severely eroded soils have deficiencies in nutrient, bacteria, alterations in structure, and decreased resistance to pests. Continuously planting row crops, corn for example, can cause severe soil loss. Sustainable agriculture can prevent or lessen soil erosion and ensure higher productivity (Gardner 1996). Our county†s high demand for grain forces farmers to over work their land. The demand for this grain and the human consumption of grown vegetation are not the only factors leading to soil erosion. The beef industry and our consumption of red meat impacts soil erosion as well. Of the total amount of grain that is grown in the US, 80% of it is fed to livestock. To support our meat centered diet, 260 million acres of U. S. forest must be cleared to create cropland for livestock (Gardner1996). Costa Rican produced beef is even more devastating to the environment. For every ? lb. of Costa Rican beef made, one acre of Costa Rican rainforest must be destroyed. This devastation is worsened by the deaths of all the plant and animal species that occur due to habitat loss (Gardner1996). Because of the above reasons and several other moral, nutritional, and economical reasons, beef consumption is bad for the environment. Every individual who switches to a purely vegetarian diet (Gardner1996) spares one acre of trees each year. The factor of agricultural practices on soil erosion becomes more severe when forests, grasslands, and wetlands are destroyed. Roots from trees in forests, grasslands, and wetlands stabilize soil not only by holding earth, but also by intercepting precipitation, dispersing energy of raindrops, and by increasing infiltration and reducing runoff (Smith 1998). Native Americans have used good agriculture practices for years. American Indians had respect for the land and all of its life forms. One of their cultural beliefs about farming is centered on the three sisters: corn, squash, and beans. The corn provides a stalk for beans to climb. Beans produce nitrogen that fertilizes the corn. And squash protects the soil and corn roots from the sun, traps moisture, and prevents erosion. All three plants provide edible food, while preserving soil. (Wilken 1995) It is essential to the survival of the human race, and all other life forms that several forms of soil conservation practices are used. There is a finite amount of food that our country can produce before our production starts to decrease. Although erosion is a natural process, humans have found several unnatural ways to make soil erosion more severe. To be able to continue to feed the growing population and preserve the species diversity of wildlife and plants we need to have sustainable agriculture practices and soil conservation these efforts are crucial in the prevention of extensive soil erosion.